Babylonian Astrology: Understanding Babylonian Astrological Traditions and Myths

Babylonian Contributions to Western Astrology

Italian version

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The History

In 1851, a British archaeological expedition led by the Assyriologist and traveller Sir Austen Henry Layard ¹ discovered a significant portion of the library of King Ashurbanipal (circa 685 BC–631 BC) in the Tigris-Euphrates plain, now in present-day Iraq. This collection included over 30,000 tablets and clay fragments containing texts on various subjects written in cuneiform, dating back to the seventh century BC. Many of these tablets featured aphorisms related to divination and astrology. This discovery was the first of its kind, although Greek and Latin authors had already documented Babylonian divination during the classical period.

Starting in the second century BC, astrology began to gain the attention of Greek authors, mainly due to Alexander the Great’s conquest of Babylon in 331 BC, which was then part of the Persian Empire. With the founding of Alexandria, Egypt’s future capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom, a crossroads of cultural interests emerged. This setting facilitated a synergy between Babylonian and Egyptian astrology. The Greeks then integrated these two sources with their own astronomical and mathematical knowledge, laying the groundwork for a blend that led to the Western astrology we recognise today.

The Babylonian Cosmogony

The cosmogonic epic dedicated to the god Marduk, dating back to around 1400 BC, tells the story of the creation of the universe. Initially, the chaotic forces of Apsu and Tiamat, representing fresh and salt water respectively, dominate the cosmos. From them, the god Anu and his son Ea are born, but Apsu intends to destroy Ea. However, Ea confronts and kills Apsu, then builds a palace over his corpse where Marduk, his extraordinary son, is born. Marduk is destined to surpass all the elder gods.

The elder gods then provoke Tiamat to battle Marduk, but he ultimately defeats her. Marduk splits Tiamat in two, creating Heaven and Earth from her halves. He also establishes the orbits of the moon and stars, is proclaimed king of the gods, and creates humanity to alleviate the burdens of the celestial beings.

The Enuma Elish (cuneiform 𒂊𒉡𒈠𒂊𒇺, meaning “When on High”) is an epic poem that contains the Babylonian creation myth. This myth shares similarities with creation stories from cultures around the world, such as those in the Bible and the Vedas. A common theme among these narratives is the struggle between chaos and creation, as well as between darkness and light.

Interestingly, chaos is not always viewed solely as the negative aspect of creation. In the Enuma Elish, the gods Apsu and Tiamat represent male and female principles, respectively. From their union arises a series of theriomorphic beings, part human and part animal, often androgynous. That suggests that chaos is not merely a formless void; instead, it is a potential rich in diverse manifestations, akin to a prototype or a collective unconscious waiting to be realised.

What happens next? The sons of the successive generations of Chaos, Anu, and Ea, strive to restore order to creation. However, they must be eliminated because the old gods resist the arrival of light. Contrary to expectations, history unfolds differently. With Marduk, the son of Ea, lord of storms and patron of Babylon, the reign of the primordial gods comes to an end, marking the beginning of human civilisation.

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The Hesiodic tales present a similar narrative. In these stories, the Titan Cronus, also known as Saturn, is the son of Mother Earth, Gaea, and Uranus, the starry sky. At his mother’s urging, he castrates his father because Uranus, a cruel god, buries the children he has with Gaea deep in the earth. However, Cronus is not without faults himself: he marries his sister Rhea and, fearing he might meet the same fate as his father, he devours the children born from their union. Only Zeus, or Jupiter, escapes this grim fate and eventually dethrones Cronus, banishing him to Tartarus. That marks the beginning of a new era in which the world can be governed by reason. The parallels between Marduk and Zeus (Jupiter) are quite apparent; both deities strive to eliminate the chaos of formless matter through the ordering light of the logos, the supreme principle that is inherent in reality.

The historian Berossus ², in his work “Babyloniaca”, provided significant insights into Babylonian mythology, which archaeological discoveries have since confirmed. Among these insights is the account of a sage named Oannes, a fish-man hybrid who emerged from the sea to teach humanity the fundamentals of knowledge, including writing, law, architecture, mathematics, and agriculture. A similar narrative is found in the Vedic epics, where Matsyāvatāra, the god Vishnu in the form of a fish-man, retrieves the Vedas—the complete corpus of sacred knowledge—from the ocean floor to bestow them upon the Rishis, the seven seers tasked with preparing humanity for a new cycle of existence. In both legends, the fish-man hybrid symbolises the emergence of knowledge from the depths of the undifferentiated, a theme also represented by the glyph of the zodiac sign Capricorn.

Babylonian Astrology

The earliest Babylonian astrology, which dates back to the sixteenth century BC, utilised methods that differ significantly from those we know today. It was primarily influenced by the concept of astral religion, focusing on interactions with spiritual essences represented by the planets. This form of astrology was mainly concerned with the king—the sovereign—who was viewed as the central figure in the temporal world and held responsible for the nation’s fate. Thus, it was primarily a form of mundane astrology, although there were times when omens could also pertain to individuals. Additionally, due to a lack of advanced tools for long-term predictions of planetary cycles, forecasts were based on daily or short-term observations of celestial phenomena.

The most notable aspect is the intricate interplay between the various elements involved in drafting omens. This complexity arises from the dense connections between planetary and zodiacal symbolism and terrestrial and atmospheric events, such as earthquakes and thunderstorms. In practice, a relationship was established between celestial and earthly phenomena based on their temporal coincidences. Thus, if the same celestial configuration recurs, the corresponding earthly event can be predicted. However, predictions can also be made only about terrestrial events. Here is an example of a prediction based on an earthquake:

As you can see, the omens are presented clearly and concisely, often structured as: one condition | one result.

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The nomenclature of signs and planets has mainly remained consistent over the centuries, shaping the development of Mediterranean astrology in later periods. A key reference for understanding the principles of Babylonian astrology is the “Enuma Anu Enlil” (cuneiform: 𒌓𒀭𒈾𒀭𒂗𒆤𒇲), which translates to “When [the gods] Enuma and Enlil […]”. This collection comprises approximately 70 tablets that encompass a vast array of 7,000 haruspices.

Beginning in the fourth century BC, advancements in mathematical techniques by Babylonian astrologers enabled the accurate calculation of future planetary positions, enabling the compilation of ephemerides.

Planets

Planets are named by their phases and retrograde motion, or by the geographical locations where they rise.

Names of deities associated with the planets

Planets	Sumerian	Semitic	Quality
Moon	𒀭𒋀𒆠 (Nanna-Suen)	Sin	Good and bad. God of night light, fruit growth, and shepherding.
Sun	𒀭𒌓 (Utu)	Shamash	Good and bad. God of omniscience, justice, and protector of travellers.
Venus	𒈹 (Inanna-Ishtar)	Ishtar	Beneficial to widows but harmful to nursing infants. Goddess of war, love, fertility, and sensuality.
Jupiter	𒀭𒀫𒌓  (Marduk)	Merodak	It’s best when there are no ominous stars nearby. This is the patron god of Babylon.
Saturn	𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁 (Ninurta-Ninib)	Adar	A more malevolent figure, this god oversees agriculture, hunting, and law. He champions public life.
Mercury	𒀭𒀝 (Nabu)	Nabi	Good and bad. God of letters, scribes, and wisdom.
Mars	𒀭𒄊𒀕𒃲 (Nergal)	Nerəgal	Bad. God of the underworld and plague.

Moon

The Moon is regarded as the most significant celestial body and is characterised as masculine in nature ³. Omens are derived from its phases, the length of its horns, its halos, its brightness, eclipses, the section of the sky it occupies, the arrangement of stars surrounding it, and the types of clouds approaching it.

The following paragraph, taken from the reports that the scribes provided to the king based on the texts of the Enuma Anu Enlil, is an example of a prediction based on the first appearance of the Moon on the first day of the month:

Sun

The Sun can be considered either masculine or feminine, depending on its associations with other planets, stars, and constellations. To interpret the omens of the Sun, one must take into account the variations of the ortive point ⁴ throughout the year, changes in brightness during its rising, and any halos or darkening, which are likely caused by sunspots.

Prediction on Solar halo:

Venus

Venus, known for both its daytime and nighttime aspects, is viewed as bisexual or, more accurately, as male when it is the morning star and female when it is the evening star.

Prediction on Venus rising:

Jupiter

Jupiter’s significance is highlighted by its rising at different times of year, especially on the first day of each month and the last day of the year. This importance is also related to its position in relation to the equator and the ecliptic, as well as its brightness.

Prediction on Jupiter’s early morning rising in Leo:

Saturn

Saturn is primarily observed for astrological purposes in relation to its aspects with the Moon. It “represents” the Sun when it sets, creating a distinctive exchange of functions. This phenomenon also involves specific constellations, related to the colour affinity between the stars and the planet.

Prediction on Saturn in the Moon’s halo on a full moon day:

Mercury

Omens and conclusions about the future are drawn from Mercury’s aspects with Venus and Saturn, as well as its position relative to the constellations.

Prediction on Mercury evening rise in Leo:

Mars

Mars’ risings, settings, disappearances, and reappearances in the sky after 7, 14, and 21 days are observed, alongside its relationships with other planets and constellations and its brightness level.

Prediction on Mars stationary in Leo:

Zodiac and Constellations

The primary reference for understanding zodiacal constellations in Babylonian astrology and astronomy is the so-called MUL.APIN (cuneiform 𒀯𒀳, “Stars of the Plough”), compiled around 1000 BC. This text includes the constellations associated with the 17 (or 18) lunar stations. Later, around the fifth century BC, Babylonian astronomical texts began to categorise planets and luminaries into 12 fixed signs, each of 30 degrees, for a total of 360 degrees. This setup forms the foundation of today’s tropical zodiac.

List of Zodiac Constellations

	Sumerian	Translation	Equivalent	Associated gods
1	𒀯𒀯 (MUL.MUL)	Star of Stars	Pleiades	Anu. Personification of the sky and king of the gods.
2	𒀯𒄞𒀭𒈾 (MUL.GU.AN.NA)	Yhe Bull of Heaven	Taurus Hyades	Anu
3	𒀯𒉺𒇻𒍣𒀭𒈾 (MUL.SIPA.ZI.AN.NA)	The Loyal Heavenly Shepherd	Orion	Anu
4	𒀯𒋗𒄀 (MUL.SU.GI)	The Old One	Perseus	Enlil. God of wind, air, earth, and storms.
5	𒀯𒉽𒈿 (MUL.GAM)	The Crook	Auriga	Enlil
6	𒀯𒈦𒋰𒁀 (MUL.MAS.TAB.BA)	The Twins	Gemini	Enlil
7	𒀯𒀠𒈜 (MUL.AL.LUL)	The Crayfish	Cancer	Enlil
8	𒀯𒌨𒄖𒆷 (MUL.UR.GU.LA) 𒀯𒌨𒈤 (MUL.UR.MAḪ)	1. The Creator 2. The Lion	Leo	Enlil
9	𒀯𒀳 (MUL.ABSIN)	The seed Furrow	Virgo	Šala. Goddess of weather and wheat.
10	𒀯𒍣𒁀𒀭𒈾 (MUL.ZI.BA.AN.NA) 𒀯𒄑𒂟 (MUL.GIŠ.ERIN)	The Scales	Libra	Anu
11	𒀯𒄈𒋰 (MUL.GIR.TAB)	The Cutter	Scorpio	Ea. Goddess of water, knowledge, magic, and deception.
12	𒀯𒉺𒉋𒊕 (MUL.PABIL.SAG)	The god Pabilsaĝ 5 The Overseer	Sagittarius	Ea
13	𒀯𒋦𒈧 (MUL. SUḪUR.MAŠ)	The Goatfish	Capricorn	Ea
14	𒀯𒄖𒆷 (MUL.GU.LA)	The Great One	Aquarius	Ea
15	𒀯𒆲𒎌 (MUL.KUN.MEŠ) 𒀯𒍦𒈨 (MUL.ZIB.ME)	The Tails	Pisces	Anu/Ea
16	𒀯𒋆𒈤 (MUL. ŠIM.MAḪ)	The Great Swallow	SW Pisces Epsilon Pegasi	Anu
17	𒀯𒀀𒉡𒉌𒌈 (MUL.A.NU.NI.TUM) 𒀯𒇻𒅆 (MUL.LU.LIM)	The goddess Anunitu 6 The Stag	NE Pisces Andromeda	Anu
18	𒀯𒇽𒂠𒂷 (MUL.LU.ḪUĜ)	The Farmer	Aries	Anu

Note

The list of constellations starts with the Pleiades in Taurus because, during the Middle Bronze Age, the Sun at the vernal equinox was near the Pleiades, not yet positioned in Aries.

The constellations of the “Tails” and the “Great Swallow” (lines 15 and 16) have also been interpreted and combined into the “Tail of the Swallow” (Pisces). This is why there is uncertainty about the actual number of constellations.

The Calendar

The Babylonian calendar was lunisolar, meaning it was based on both lunar and solar cycles. Each year consisted of 12 lunar months, beginning with the sighting of the first crescent moon on the western horizon at sunset. To keep the calendar aligned with the solar year, an intercalary month was added approximately every two to three years. Initially, this adjustment was made by decree, but starting in the fifth century BC, it became more accurate through the prediction of lunar cycles. ⁷

In reality, two calendars were in use. The lunisolar civil calendar was paired with an administrative calendar consisting of 12 months, each containing 30 days, for a total of 360 days per year. Discrepancies caused by the differing lengths of the solar year were corrected through astronomical observations. The administrative calendar was utilised for commercial transactions, tax calculations, and further astronomical observations.

We can still find the Akkadian names for the months, with a few modifications, in the Jewish calendar used today, as well as in Iraq, Syria, and the Levant, even though they do not correspond to lunar months.

Civil Calendar

	Sumerian	Translation	Akkadian	Jewish	Gregorian
1	𒌚𒁈𒍠 (ITI.BARA.ZAG)	The month in which the gods’ substitutes are at the side of the throne	Nisānu	Nisan	March/April
2	𒌚𒄞𒋛𒋢 (ITI.GU.SI.SU)	The month in which the horned oxen march	Āru	Iyar	April/May
3	𒌚𒋞𒄷𒋛𒊒𒁀𒂷𒃻 (ITI.SIG.U.ŠUB.BA.GÁ.GAR)	The month in which the brick is placed in the mould	Simanu	Siwan	May/June
4	𒌚𒋗𒆰 (ITI.SU.NUMUN)	The Month of seed preparation	Dumuzu	Tammuz	June/July
5	𒌚𒉈𒉈𒃻 (ITI.NE.IZI.GAR)	Month where the braziers are lit	Abu	Av	July/August
6	𒌚𒆥𒀭𒈹 (ITI.KIN.INANNA)	Month of Inanna’s Rectification	Ulūlu	Elul	August/September
7	𒌚𒇯𒆬 (ITI.DU.KÙ)	Month of the Sacred Mound	Tišritum	Tishrei	September/October
8	𒌚(𒄑)𒀳𒂃𒀀 (ITI.(GIŠ).APIN.DU.A)	The month when the plough is abandoned	Samnu	Cheshvan	October/November
9	𒌚𒃶𒃶(𒈬)𒌓𒁺 (ITI.GAN.GAN.(MU).E)	Month when clouds appear (?)	Kislimu	Kislev	November/December
10	𒌚𒀊𒌓𒁺 (ITI.AB.E)	Father’s Month	Ṭebētum	Tebeth	December/January
11	𒌚𒍩𒀀 (ITI.ZIZ.A)	Wheat Month	Šabaṭu	Shevat	January/February
12	𒌚𒊺𒆥𒋻 (ITI.SE.KIN.KU)	Harvest Month	Addaru	Adar	February/March

References

Enuma Anu Enlil – Wikipedia. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enuma_Anu_Enlil

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1. Austen Henry Layard (1817–1894) was an English Assyriologist, art historian, collector, politician, and diplomat. Born in Paris and educated in Italy, he is best known for his archaeological excavations at Nimrud and Nineveh, where he discovered the library of King Ashurbanipal within the ruins of a palace. His excavation reports helped him accumulate a significant fortune, and most of his finds are now housed in the British Museum. ↩︎
2. Berossus (c. 340 BC) was a Babylonian priest, historian, and astronomer who authored three books on Babylonian history and culture, collectively known as the “Babyloniaca,” written in koine Greek. Only fragments of his work have survived; however, thanks to Eusebius of Caesarea, a third-century AD Christian historian, and Latin authors like Jerome of Stridon, some of his writings are known to us today. ↩︎
3. The reasons for this gender “inversion” compared to traditional Mediterranean symbolic models are primarily a matter of perspective. In agricultural cultures, which are prevalent over nomadic ones, the Moon plays a “fertilising” role by regulating the timing of sowing. That is also true for cultures like Japan’s, where the lunar god Tsukuyomi symbolises order and ritual. Consequently, the motifs of repetition and the resulting harmony are key features in associating a male gender with the lunar deity. Additionally, the Moon was regarded as a friend to travellers, as its light facilitated nighttime journeys. ↩︎
4. The ortive point (Latin: ortivus, “of birth”) is the point where a star appears above the horizon. ↩︎
5. Pabilsaĝ is a Mesopotamian warrior god who wields a bow and arrow. He also serves as a judge and divine official overseeing land registry properties. Pabilsaĝ is represented by the constellation Sagittarius. ↩︎
6. The goddess Anunitu, also known as Annunitum, is a Mesopotamian deity associated with war and fertility. She is the patron goddess of the city of Akkad. Initially, her name was an epithet for the goddess Ishtar, but over time, it became recognised as a distinct deity. ↩︎
7. The Babylonians utilised what is now known as the Metonic cycle to calculate lunar cycles. This cycle, named after the Greek mathematician Meton of Athens who first computed it, spans approximately 19 years, or 6,940 days. During this period, the lunar phases coincide with the same time of year. ↩︎